Rise, Struggle, and Glory
One of this year’s unmissable exhibitions in London is the V&A’s Great Mughals: Art, Architecture, and Opulence. This spectacular exhibition offers a deep exploration of the patronage of three extraordinary emperors:
- Akbar (1556–1605)
- Jahangir (1605–1627)
- Shah Jahan (1628–1658)
Their vision and grandeur are brought to life in every gallery, showcasing a breathtaking array of treasures, from finely crafted weaponry and luminous paintings to intricate jewellery, rare books, and delicately designed dishes. Each space is enriched with sounds, music, and video, making the world of the Mughals feel vivid and tangible. This is not just an exhibition – it is an immersive experience that celebrates creativity, power, and beauty in all its forms.
To mark the exhibition and the accompanying V&A Academy course, we are dedicating our next three posts to the Mughals. Our three-part series will begin with the birth of the Mughal Empire through to the reign of Akbar-e-Azam, then move on to explore the exhibition’s focus on Jahangir and Shah Jahan (as well as his successor, Aurangzeb), before concluding with a special feature on the women of the Mughal Empire.
A Note on Language
The word ‘Mughal’ (or ‘Moghul’ in English) is the Indo-Persian form of ‘Mongol’. However, the Mughals themselves referred to their lineage as Gurkani, a reference to their descent from Timur, who took the title Gūrkān or ‘son-in-law’ after marrying a Chinggisid princess. The founder of the Mughal dynasty, Babur, was descended from both Timur on his father’s side and Genghis Khan on his mother’s side. For the purposes of this blog series, we will be using the more common term, Mughal.
Babur: The Founder of an Empire
Born on 14th February 1483 in the Fergana Valley (in present-day Uzbekistan), Babur ascended to his father’s throne at the age of eleven. The neighbouring kingdoms, ruled by his own family members, were rife with hostility, threatening his succession. He spent much of his first decade as ruler fighting to maintain his inheritance, aided by his maternal grandmother, Aisan Daulat Begum.
His first great achievement was the acquisition of Samarkand, a land ruled by his paternal cousin to the west. Unfortunately, this was short-lived. After falling seriously ill, he lost both Samarkand and Fergana to rival factions. He would attempt to reclaim these lands multiple times but failed, and although he ruled Samarkand for only 100 days, he remained obsessed with it for the rest of his life.
The next three years were spent building a large, strong army, a force with which he marched on Kabul. His paternal uncle, Ulugh Beg II, had recently died, and his infant son was soon usurped. Babur seized the opportunity, crossing the Hindu Kush and capturing Kabul from the usurpers. He remained ruler there for twenty years. However, with limited revenue from his mountainous kingdom, he set his sights on a new prize.
At the time, much of India was under the rule of the Delhi Sultanate, whose grip was weakening. Its ruler, Ibrahim Lodi, faced opposition from Afghan and Persian nobles, particularly after he murdered his elder brother, Jalal Khan, who had been the favourite. In 1526, Daulat Khan Lodi, the governor of Punjab, invited Babur to invade. With the aid of the Safavids and Ottomans, Babur defeated Ibrahim Lodi at the Battle of Panipat, marking the end of the Delhi Sultanate and the beginning of the Mughal Empire.
Babur’s contributions to the empire extended beyond territorial conquests. His vision and leadership laid the foundations for its future prosperity. His innovative use of artillery and encirclement tactics revolutionised warfare in the East. He built a grand palace in Agra, featuring a walled garden in the Charbagh layout. He also developed his own style of writing, Khatt-i Baburi, and established a vast library, transforming the Mughal Empire into an important centre of knowledge.
Much of what we know about Babur comes from his memoirs, the Baburnama, originally written in Chagatai and later translated into Persian during the reign of his grandson, Akbar. The Baburnama is considered a candid and honest depiction of his life. Babur, a Sunni Muslim, evolved as a ruler over time. Initially hostile towards Hindus and Sikhs, he later adopted a more tolerant stance, advocating coexistence between different faiths. In his will, he advised his son Humayun to rule justly, avoid cow sacrifices, and preserve religious sites.
Babur died in Agra on 5th January 1531 at the age of 47. Initially buried in Agra, his remains were later moved to Kabul and reinterred in Bagh-e Babur between 1539 and 1544.
Humayun: The Struggle for a Throne
Upon Babur’s death, his empire was divided. His eldest son, Humayun, inherited the Mughal throne, while Kabul and Kandahar – the empire’s northernmost territories – were given to his half-brother, Kamran Mirza. This division was unusual in India, where primogeniture (the eldest son inheriting all power) was the norm. However, the Timurids followed the Mongol tradition, in which lands were divided among sons, each of whom could claim the throne. This practice had previously led to civil wars, as seen after Timur’s death. Babur’s own sons were no different, for they soon became bitter rivals.
The Mughal nobility (umarah) initially attempted to install Babur’s son-in-law, Mahdi Khwaja, as ruler instead of Humayun. Later, Humayun’s brothers also rebelled against him. Despite their repeated betrayals, he often forgave them, adhering to Babur’s final words: “Do nothing against your brothers, even though they may deserve it.”
Humayun’s reign was not only challenged by his own family but also by external threats. Sultan Bahadur of Gujarat and Sher Shah Suri both sought to expand their rule at his expense. The first five years of Humayun’s reign were spent defending against their advances while watching his territories slip away. Although Humayun secured firearms from the Ottoman Empire, the Portuguese were simultaneously forming alliances with Bahadur, strengthening their foothold in north-western India. In 1537, Bahadur was killed in a failed attempt to kidnap the Portuguese viceroy. His death created a power vacuum in Gujarat, ultimately enabling the Mughals to dominate the region. However, Humayun’s struggle against Sher Shah Suri resulted in his defeat at the Battle of Kannauj in 1540, forcing him into a 15-year exile.
During his exile, Humayun is said to have visited Guru Angad Dev Ji, the second Sikh Guru, at Gurdwara Mal Akhara Sahib in Khadur Sahib. According to legend, the Guru was teaching children when Humayun arrived. When the Guru did not immediately acknowledge him, Humayun, angered by the perceived slight, lashed out. However, he was reminded that his real battle lay in reclaiming his throne – a throne he had fled from at the first sign of trouble. It is believed that Guru Angad Dev Ji blessed him, foretelling his eventual return to power.
Sher Shah Suri died in 1545, and his son and successor followed in 1554. These deaths led to a renewed struggle for power, with multiple factions vying for control of Delhi. Seizing the opportunity, Humayun, with the support of the Safavids, marched into India under the leadership of Bayram Khan. As they advanced through Punjab, they encountered little resistance, facing only one major battle against Sikandar Shah Suri in Sirhind. The swift victory re-established Mughal rule, and after Sirhind’s fall, most towns and villages welcomed Humayun’s return.
On 24th January 1556, Humayun met an untimely and tragic end. Carrying an armful of books, he was descending the staircase in his library when his foot became entangled in his robe. He stumbled, fell down several steps, and struck his temple on a stone ledge. He succumbed to his injuries three days later.
Despite the turbulence of his reign, Humayun’s greatest legacy was the introduction of Persian culture, art, and architecture to the Indian subcontinent. This fusion of Persian and Indian styles became a defining feature of Mughal aesthetics, reaching its zenith under Akbar and Shah Jahan. Thousands of Persian manuscripts, stone carvings, and architectural works from Humayun’s time remain in India, reflecting his lasting cultural impact.
His life was later recorded in the Humayun-nama, written by his sister, Gulbadan Begum, at the request of his son, Akbar. Unlike other royal Mughal chronicles – such as the Zafarnama of Timur, the Baburnama, and the Akbarnama – no richly illustrated copies of the Humayun-nama have survived. The only known version is an incomplete, battered manuscript housed in the British Library.
Akbar: A Visionary Ruler
Jalal ud-din Muhammad Akbar was born on 25th October 1542 at the Rajput fortress of Amarkot. During his father Humayun’s exile, Akbar was raised in Kabul by his paternal uncles and aunts, spending his youth learning to hunt, run, and fight. His childhood was filled with tales of courage. At nineteen, for instance, he rode ahead of his party and was attacked by a tigress – one swipe of his sword, and she was down.
Akbar was also known for his remarkable ability to tame animals. He trained cheetahs to hunt deer using non-lethal methods, kept 12,000 deer, and developed new trapping techniques to avoid harming them. He maintained a specialised unit of war dogs for battle and surveillance and had a deep fascination with pigeon flying. At court, he bred pigeons and trained them to perform complex manoeuvres.
At the age of fourteen, under the guidance of his regent Bairam Khan, Akbar was proclaimed Shahanshah – the King of Kings. His military campaigns consolidated Mughal rule. He not only conquered Gujarat, which controlled much of India’s trade, but also expanded his empire into Bengal, Kashmir, Sindh, and Kandahar. Later, he extended his domain southward, bringing Khandesh, Berar, and Ahmadnagar under Mughal control.
Beyond military conquests, Akbar introduced significant administrative reforms, centralising governance and establishing the Mansabdari system, which organised both military and civil administration into a structured hierarchy. He also implemented Dahsala, a standardised taxation system, and appointed Zamindars – local tax collectors who worked directly under the empire.
Despite his immense power, Akbar was known for his magnanimity and reluctance to punish harshly, even when faced with betrayal. One of the most striking examples of this was his refusal to execute his milk mother’s son, Adham Khan, despite the latter’s repeated acts of treachery. Though in 1561, driven by personal jealousy and political aspirations, Adham Khan murdered Ataga Khan, the emperor’s trusted Prime Minister, inside the imperial court. When Akbar learned of the assassination, he personally confronted Adham. Instead of ordering a drawn-out or torturous execution, he ensured a swift resolution by having him thrown twice from the ramparts of Agra Fort.
During his lifetime, Akbar was given the title the Great—Akbar-e-Azam. He fought against religious intolerance, ensuring the safety of non-Muslims and promoting peace. He founded a state-sponsored religious movement, Dīn-I Ilāhī (“Divine Faith”), which sought to unify the best elements of different religions and foster harmony among his subjects. He revered the Ganges River, calling its waters “the water of immortality,” and visited Vrindavan, the birthplace of Lord Krishna, where he granted permission for the construction of four Hindu temples. He even stopped eating meat.
Perhaps the most notable moment came in 1569. While travelling from Lahore to Delhi, he stopped in Punjab to meet Guru Amar Das Ji, the third Sikh Guru. Eager to understand the langar system – where food was distributed freely to all, regardless of caste – Akbar humbly sat on the ground as an equal among common men. He would later donate the land upon which Harmandir Sahib (the Golden Temple) was built.
Akbar suffered from severe dyslexia and remained unable to read or write throughout his life, yet he possessed an extraordinary memory. He amassed a library of over 24,000 books in Sanskrit, Urdu, Persian, Greek, Latin, Arabic, and Kashmiri. His courts in Delhi, Agra, and Fatehpur Sikri became centres of art, literature, and intellectual exchange, attracting scholars, poets, architects, and artisans from across the world. His biography, the Akbarnāma, was written in Persian and took seven years to complete, with original manuscripts richly illustrated to complement the text.
On 3rd October 1605, Akbar fell ill. Within a month, he had passed away. He was succeeded by his third and only surviving son, Prince Salim, who would go on to rule as Jahangir. We pick up his story on 13th April. Come back then to learn more.
